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The Netherlands, despite its comparatively modest size and population, had a considerable part in the making of the modern society.〔Motley, John Lothrop (1855). “The Rise of the Dutch Republic”, Volume I, Preface. “The rise of the Dutch Republic must ever be regarded as one of the leading events of modern times. Without the birth of this great commonwealth, the various historical phenomena of the sixteenth and following centuries must have either not existed, or have presented themselves under essential modifications.”〕〔Rybczynski, Witold (1987). ''Home: A Short History of an Idea''. According to Witold Rybczynski’s ''Home: A Short History of an Idea'', private spaces in households are a Dutch seventeenth-century invention, despite their commonplace nature today. He has argued that home as we now know it came from the Dutch canal house of the seventeenth century. That, he said, was the first time that people identified living quarters as being precisely the residence of a man, a woman and their children. “The feminization of the home in seventeenth century Holland was one of the most important events in the evolution of the domestic interior.” This evolution took place in part due to Dutch law being “explicit on contractual arrangements and on the civil rights of servants”. And, “for the first time, the person who was in intimate contact with housework was also in a position to influence the arrangement and disposition of the house.” Rybczynski (2007) discusses why we live in houses in the first place: “To understand why we live in houses, it is necessary to go back several hundred years to Europe. Rural people have always lived in houses, but the typical medieval town dwelling, which combined living space and workplace, was occupied by a mixture of extended families, servants, and employees. This changed in seventeenth-century Holland. The Netherlands was Europe’s first republic, and the world’s first middle-class nation. Prosperity allowed extensive home ownership, republicanism discouraged the widespread use of servants, a love of children promoted the nuclear family, and Calvinism encouraged thrift and other domestic virtues. These circumstances, coupled with a particular affection for the private family home, brought about a cultural revolution... The idea of urban houses spread to the British Isles thanks to England's strong commercial and cultural links with the Netherlands.”〕〔Schama, Simon (1988). ''The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age''〕〔Prak, Maarten (2005). ''The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age'', p. 2〕〔Tabor, Philip (2005). "Striking Home: The Telematic Assault on Identity". Published in Jonathan Hill, editor, ''Occupying Architecture: Between the Architect and the User''. Philip Tabor states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today: “As far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands. This idea's crystallization might be dated to the first three-quarters of the seventeenth century, when the Dutch Netherlands amassed the unprecedented and unrivalled accumulation of capital, and emptied their purses into domestic space.” According to Jonathan Hill (''Immaterial Architecture'', 2006), compared to the large scaled houses in England and the Renaissance, the 17th Century Dutch house was smaller, and was only inhabited by up to four to five members. This was due to their embracing "self-reliance", in contrast to the dependence on servants, and a design for a lifestyle centered on the family. It was important for the Dutch to separate work from domesticity, as the home became an escape and a place of comfort. This way of living and the home has been noted as highly similar to the contemporary family and their dwellings. House layouts also incorporated the idea of the corridor as well as the importance of function and privacy. By the end of the 17th Century, the house layout was soon transformed to become employment-free, enforcing these ideas for the future. This came in favour for the industrial revolution, gaining large-scale factory production and workers. The house layout of the Dutch and its functions are still relevant today.〕〔Perry, Marvin; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Chase, Myrna; Von Laue, Theodore (2009). ''Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society: Since 1400'', p. 391-392〕 The Netherlands〔including the Dutch-speaking Southern Netherlands prior to 1585〕 and its people have made numerous seminal contributions to the world's civilization,〔Taylor, Peter J. (2002). ''Dutch Hegemony and Contemporary Globalization''. “The Dutch developed a social formula, which we have come to call modern capitalism, that proved to be transferable and ultimately deadly to all other social formulations.”〕〔Dunthorne, Hugh (2004). ''The Dutch Republic: That mother nation of liberty'', in ''The Enlightenment World'', M. Fitzpatrick, P. Jones, C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman eds. London: Routledge, pp. 87-103〕〔Hamowy, Ronald (2008). ''The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism'', p. 130-131. “Although today we can easily find much to criticize about the Dutch Republic, it remains a crucial early experiment in toleration, limited government, and commercial capitalism... Dutch shipping, banking, commerce, and credit raised living standards for the rich and the poor alike and for the first time created that characteristically modern social phenomenon, a middle class... Libertarians value the Dutch Republic as a historical phenomenon not because it represented any sort of perfection, but above all because it demonstrated to several generations of intellectuals the practicality of allowing citizens greater liberties than were customarily accorded them, which in turn contributed to producing what we now know as classical liberalism.”〕 especially in art,〔〔The Dutch Republic was the birthplace of the first modern art market, successfully combining art and commerce together as we would recognise it today. Until the 17th century, commissioning works of art was largely the preserve of the church, monarchs and aristocrats. The emergence of a powerful and wealthy middle class in Holland, though, produced a radical change in patronage as the new Dutch bourgeoisie bought art. For the first time, the direction of art was shaped by relatively broadly-based demand rather than religious dogma or royal whim, and the result was the birth of a large-scale open (free) art market which today's dealers and collectors would find familiar.〕〔Jaffé, H. L. C. (1986). ''De Stijl 1917-1931: The Dutch Contribution to Modern Art''〕〔Muller, Sheila D. (1997). ''Dutch Art: An Encyclopedia''〕 science,〔Struik, Dirk J. (1981). ''The Land of Stevin and Huygens: A Sketch of Science and Technology in the Dutch Republic during the Golden Century (Studies in the History of Modern Science)''〕〔Porter, Roy; Teich, Mikulas (1992). ''The Scientific Revolution in National Context''〕〔Van Berkel, Klaas; Van Helden, Albert; Palm, Lodewijk (1998). ''A History of Science in the Netherlands: Survey, Themes and Reference''〕〔Jorink, Eric (2010). ''Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715''〕 technology and engineering,〔Haven, Kendall (2005). ''100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time''〕〔Davids, Karel (2008). ''The Rise and Decline of Dutch Technological Leadership. Technology, Economy and Culture in the Netherlands, 1350-1800 (2 vols)''〕〔Curley, Robert (2009). ''The Britannica Guide to Inventions That Changed the Modern World''〕 economics and finance,〔During their Golden Age, the Dutch were responsible for three major institutional innovations in economic and financial history. The first major innovation was the foundation of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), the world's first publicly traded company, in 1602. As the first listed company (the first company to be ever listed on an official stock exchange), the VOC was the first company to actually issue stock and bonds to the general public. Considered by many experts to be the world's first truly (modern) multinational corporation, the VOC was also the first permanently organized limited-liability joint-stock company, with a permanent capital base. The Dutch merchants were the pioneers in laying the basis for modern corporate governance. The VOC is often considered as the precursor of modern corporations, if not the first truly modern corporation. It was the VOC that invented the idea of investing in the company rather than in a specific venture governed by the company. With its pioneering features such as corporate identity (first globally-recognized corporate logo), entrepreneurial spirit, legal personhood, transnational (multinational) operational structure, high stable profitability, permanent capital (fixed capital stock), freely transferable shares and tradable securities, separation of ownership and management, and limited liability for both shareholders and managers, the VOC is generally considered a major institutional breakthrough and the model for the large-scale business enterprises that now dominate the global economy. The second major innovation was the creation of the world's first fully functioning financial market, with the birth of a fully fledged capital market. The Dutch were also the first to effectively use a fully-fledged capital market (including the bond market and the stock market) to finance companies (such as the VOC and the WIC). It was in seventeenth-century Amsterdam that the global securities market began to take on its modern form. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established an exchange in Amsterdam where VOC stock and bonds could be traded in a secondary market. The VOC undertook the world's first recorded IPO in the same year. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (''Amsterdamsche Beurs'' in Dutch) was also the world's first fully-fledged stock exchange. While the Italian city-states produced the first transferable government bonds, they didn't develop the other ingredient necessary to produce a fully fledged capital market: corporate shareholders. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) became the first company to offer shares of stock. The dividend averaged around 18% of capital over the course of the company's 200-year existence. Dutch investors were the first to trade their shares at a regular stock exchange. The buying and selling of these shares of stock in the VOC became the basis of the first stock market. It was in the Dutch Republic that the early techniques of stock-market manipulation were developed. The Dutch pioneered stock futures, stock options, short selling, bear raids, debt-equity swaps, and other speculative instruments. Amsterdam businessman Joseph de la Vega's ''Confusion of Confusions'' (1688) was the earliest book about stock trading. The third major innovation was the establishment of the Bank of Amsterdam (Amsterdamsche Wisselbank in Dutch) in 1609, which led to the introduction of the concept of bank money. The Bank of Amsterdam was arguably the world's first central bank. The Wisselbank's innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the central banking system that now plays a vital role in the world's economy. It occupied a central position in the financial world of its day, providing an effective, efficient and trusted system for national and international payments, and introduced the first ever international reserve currency, the bank guilder. Lucien Gillard (2004) calls it the ''European guilder'' (''le florin européen''), and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works (Smith 1776: 446-455). The model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden (1668) and the Bank of England (1694).〕〔Bornschier, Volker; Lengyel, Peter (1992). ''Waves, Formations and Values in the World System'', p. 69. “The rise of capitalist ''national'' states (as opposed to city-states) was a European innovation, and the first of these was the Dutch Republic of the seventeenth century.”〕〔Brenner, Reuven (1994). ''Labyrinths of Prosperity: Economic Follies, Democratic Remedies'', p. 60〕〔De Vries, Jan; Woude, Ad van der (1997). ''The First Modern Economy: Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815''〕〔Gordon, John Steele (1999). ''The Great Game: The Emergence of Wall Street as a World Power: 1653–2000''. “The Dutch invented modern capitalism in the early seventeenth century. Although many of the basic concepts had first appeared in Italy during the Renaissance, the Dutch, especially the citizens of the city of Amsterdam, were the real innovators. They transformed banking, stock exchanges, credit, insurance, and limited-liability corporations into a coherent financial and commercial system.”〕〔Gordon, Scott (1999). ''Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today'', p. 172. “In addition to its role in the history of constitutionalism, the republic was important in the early development of the essential features of modern capitalism: private property, production for sale in general markets, and the dominance of the profit motive in the behavior of producers and traders.”〕 cartography and geography,〔Schilder, Gunther (1985). ''The Netherland Nautical Cartography from 1550 to 1650''〕〔Woodward, David, ed (1987). ''Art and Cartography: Six Historical Essays'', p. 147-174〕 exploration and navigation,〔Paine, Lincoln P. (2000). ''Ships of Discovery and Exploration''〕〔Day, Alan (2003). ''The A to Z of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia'', p. xxxvii-xxxviii〕 law and jurisprudence,〔The Dutch made significant contributions to the law of the sea, law of nations (public international law) and company law〕 thought and philosophy,〔〔〔Van Bunge, Wiep (2001). ''From Stevin to Spinoza: an Essay on Philosophy in the Seventeenth-Century Dutch Republic''〕〔Van Bunge, Wiep (2003). ''The Early Enlightenment in the Dutch Republic 1650–1750''〕 medicine,〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=''The triple helix in Dutch Life Sciences Health'' )〕 and agriculture. During the Age of Discovery (the Dutch Golden Age in particular), using their expertise in doing business, cartography, shipbuilding, seafaring and navigation, the Dutch traveled to the far corners of the world, leaving their language embedded in the names of many places. Dutch exploratory voyages revealed largely unknown landmasses to the civilized world and put their names on the world map. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Dutch-speaking cartographers〔including Southern Netherlands-based (Zuid-Nederlanders in Dutch) cartographers/geographers such as Gemma Frisius, Gerardus Mercator and Abraham Ortelius〕 helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of modern cartography (including nautical cartography and stellar cartography). The Dutch came to dominate the map making and map printing industry by virtue of their own travels, trade ventures, and widespread commercial networks.〔Koeman, Cornelis; Schilder, Günter; van Egmond, Marco; van der Krogt, Peter; Zandvliet, Kees: ''The History of Cartography, Volume 3: Cartography in the European Renaissance'' (''Part 2: Low Countries''), pp. 1246–1462, David Woodward ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007)〕 The Dutch initiated what we would call today the free flow of geographical information. As Dutch ships reached into the unknown corners of the globe, Dutch cartographers incorporated new discoveries into their work. Instead of using the information themselves secretly, they published it, so the maps multiplied freely. They were able to share their discoveries and ideas with the world because Dutch officials supported the freedom of press. The Dutch were the first (non-natives) to undisputedly discover, explore and map many unknown isolated areas of the world such as Svalbard, Australia,〔that comprising mainland Australia, Tasmania and their surrounding islands〕 New Zealand, Tonga, Sakhalin,〔The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries, who mapped Cape Patience and Cape Aniva on the island's east coast in 1643. The Dutch captain, however, was not aware of their being on an island, and 17th century maps usually showed these points—and often Hokkaido, too—as parts of the mainland.〕 and Easter Island. In many cases the Dutch were the first Europeans the natives would encounter.〔McManamon, Francis; Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; Milner, George (2009). ''Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia'' (4 volumes), p. 26〕 Australia (originally known as New Holland), never became a permanent Dutch settlement,〔As Peter J. Taylor (2002) notes: ‘The Dutch polity of the seventeenth century was famously unconcerned with territorial expansion: as long as the frontier operated effectively as a defensive shield no extra land was deemed necessary.’〕 yet the Dutch were the first to undisputedly map its coastline. The Dutch navigators charted almost three-quarters of the Australian coastline, except the east coast. During the Age of Exploration, the Dutch explorers and cartographers were also the first to systematically observe and map (chart) the largely unknown far southern skies – the first significant addition to the topography of the sky since . Among the IAU's 88 modern constellations, there are 15 Dutch-created constellations, including 12 .〔Knobel, E. B. (1917). ''On Frederick de Houtman's Catalogue of Southern Stars, and the Origin of the Southern Constellations''. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 77, p. 414–432. The constellations around the South Pole were not observable from north of the equator, by Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese or Arabs. During the Age of Exploration, expeditions to the southern hemisphere began to result in the addition of new constellations. The modern constellations in this region were defined notably by Dutch navigators Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman, who in 1595 traveled together to the East Indies (first Dutch expedition to Indonesia). These 12 newly Dutch-created (that including Apus, Chamaeleon, Dorado, Grus, Hydrus, Indus, Musca, Pavo, Phoenix, Triangulum Australe, Tucana and Volans) first appeared on a 35-cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597/1598 in Amsterdam by Dutch cartographers Petrus Plancius and Jodocus Hondius. The first depiction of these constellations in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer's ''Uranometria'' of 1603.〕〔Simpson, Phil (2012): ''Guidebook to the Constellations: Telescopic Sights, Tales, and Myths'', p. 559-561, p. 599-600〕〔Among 15 (recognized by the IAU), three constellations including Camelopardalis, Columba, and Monoceros, formed by Petrus Plancius in 1592 and in 1613, are often erroneously attributed to Jacob Bartsch and Augustin Royer〕 In the sixth episode ''Travellers' Tales'' of the popular documentary TV series ''Cosmos'' (1980), American astronomer Carl Sagan, who also served as host, took a look at the Voyager missions to Jupiter and Saturn, and compared the excitement to the adventuring spirit of the early Dutch explorers who traveled unknown seas for the first time. Their discoveries led to further knowledge of previously unheard of wonders and riches, comparable to the invaluable data retrieved by the spacecraft. Dutch-speaking people, in spite of their relatively small number, have a significant history of invention, innovation, discovery and exploration. The following list is composed of objects, (largely) unknown lands, breakthrough ideas/concepts, principles, phenomena, processes, methods, techniques, styles etc., that were discovered or invented (or pioneered) by people from the Netherlands and Dutch-speaking people from the former Southern Netherlands (''Zuid-Nederlanders'' in Dutch). Until the fall of Antwerp (1585), the Dutch and Flemish were generally seen as one people.〔Frisians, specifically West Frisians, are an ethnic group; present in the North of the Netherlands; mainly concentrating in the Province of Friesland. Culturally, modern Frisians and the (Northern) Dutch are rather similar; the main and generally most important difference being that Frisians speak West Frisian, one of the three sub-branches of the Frisian languages, alongside Dutch. West Frisians in the general do not feel or see themselves as part of a larger group of Frisians, and, according to a 1970 inquiry, identify themselves more with the Dutch than with East or North Frisians. Because of centuries of cohabitation and active participation in Dutch society, as well as being bilingual, the Frisians are not treated as a separate group in Dutch official statistics.〕 ==Inventions and innovations== 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「List of Dutch inventions and discoveries」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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